PAGE SUMMARY (Ana Schantz, February 2022)
The page offers primary and secondary sources about the African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. On this page, learners (teachers and students) can learn about the history of these three African empires through interactive maps, videos, articles, manuscripts, timelines, and maps. Besides that, teachers can also find learning plans that would help them design their lessons.
For more on early African history, see AP World History Key Concept 3.2
Read " Ways of Recording African History ," which helps explain how our understanding of the past differs from culture to culture, and provides some examples of the material record of various African cultures.
Beginning in the 8th Century, Islam spread through Africa primarily through contact with Arab/Muslim traders as part of the Trans-Sahara Trade.
Map Resources
Interactive Map of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai's empires, including trade routes, architectures, landmarks and biographies.
Mapping Africa from the Royal Geographic Society provides an audio slideshow that includes maps from the earliest depictions of Africa to the colonial scramble for land.
Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu from the Library of Congress.
Read " The Forgotten History of African Women " to learn more about women's roles throughout the continent.
There is still much we do not know about the ancient kingdom of Ghana. Most of what we do know comes from the writings of Arab travelers and historians who became aware of Ghana in the 8th Century CE. As a result, very little is known about the time before Arab contact.
The Empire of Ghana is the earliest known empire in the Western Sudan. It is believed that they had large armies, sophisticated systems of governance, and systems of taxation. Ghana was first populated of Soninke clans, who acted as intermediaries of the slat and gold traders in the region. The kingdom was ruled by a king who relied on tributary princes. This system of government had many similarities to the feudal system in Europe.
One lasting account of the Kingdom of Ghana is written by Al-Bakri, a member of a prominent Spanish Arab family who lived during the 11 th century.
The Empire of Ghana thrived on the wealth of gold. It also increased its ability to trade when it acquired camels, as this allowed them to cross the Sahara with more ease and trade a wide variety of commodities—something that the ancient people could not do.
Here is a lesson plan from the National Endowment for the Humanities about trade in ancient West Africa
Watch a video about Ghana's empire.
The modern country of Ghana is not located in the same place as the Empire of Ghana. Modern Ghana is about 400 miles southeast of where the Empire was and is not related ethnically either. The modern country was named after liberation from colonization—choosing a name of one of the great African empires was symbolic of African independence and success.
The Empire of Mali i came into power as the Empire of Ghana was declining, and formed into one of the huge states of premodern Africa - it was 2,000 km wide (approximately 1200 miles).
Equipped with a complex governmental structure headed by the king and managed by officials, sub-kings, and bureaucrats, Mali was also one of the first states south of the Sahara to see the new religion of Islam firmly take hold. The message of the Prophet was soon allied to the interest of the rulers of Mali, and a strong relationship between religion and the state quickly developed.
Like Ghana, the Empire of Mali controlled the gold trade, but it also controlled the salt trade. Cowrie shells were used as currency which made the empire’s economic system advanced.
In the 15th century, the Mali Empire began to suffer defeats from without and within. Tuareg nomads conquered Timbuktu, and soon after, Songhai living in Gao began a revolt against Mali.
The city of Timbuktu was a central spot on the trade routes and one of the most important places in medieval Africa.
Here is an excerpt from Larry Brook's "Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Timbuktu" that provides insight into their society as well as women's role in their society
Map of Songhay Empire
The people who made up the Songhai Empire in the 15th century CE actually started as fishermen and canoeists in the 9th century and formed a kingdom in the 11th century.
They lived in an area claimed by the Mali Empire during Mali’s reign, but Mali never managed to have control over them.
As Mali fell, Songhai rose under the control of Sonni Ali The Great. Songhay became what is now known as the greatest African empire ever.
The Songhai military was the largest organized military force in Western Africa (and extremely well-equipped).
Joannes Leo Africanus, an Arab traveler visited Timbuktu in the Kingdom of Songhay early in the 1500s.
Learn more about the Songhai Empire's introduction into the Islamic world and its eventual decline here .
For background, see The Empires of Western Sudan from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The Great Mosque of Djenne is an Islamic religious site that was constructed under the Songhai Empire.
Collapse: Why Do Civilizations Fail? Click here for background information on the Rise and fall of Mali and Songhai .
Read more about the decline of the Songhai Empire, and causes of the Moroccan invasion of 1591, here , from the University of Pennsylvania.
For a short video, see The Songhai Empire on YouTube.
The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was founded in the 1st century CE and went into decline in the 7th century CE because of the Islamic expansion. It was located on the northern edge of the Red Sea coas t, just above the horn of Africa.
Its economy was based on trading between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.
Around A.D. 330-40, Christianity was made the official state religion.
Here is a lesson plan with video and activities about the Kingdom of Aksum.
Mancala is an ancient African board game. There is archaeological evidence of Mancala's board in the kingdom of Aksum around the 6th and 7th century CE.
CROSS-LINK: Kingdom of Axum
Africanus, Leo (Date Unknown) The History and Description of Africa pp. 824-825. Retrieved February 7, 2012, from BU African Studies Center: Kingdom of Songhay Primary Source Documents Website: http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_songhay/
Al-Bakri, The Book of Routes and Realms , cited in Levitzion and Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History , (Cambridge University Press, 1981) pp. 79-81. Excerpt Retrieved Feb 7, 2012, from BU African Studies Center: Kingdom of Ghana Primary Source Documents Website: http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_ghana /
America's Black Holocaust Museu m. Three Of The World's Most Influential Empires: Ghana, Mali And Songhai. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from Am erica's Black Holocaust Museum web site: https://www.abhmuseum.org/three-of-the-worlds-most-influential-empires-wagadu-mali-and-songhai/#:~:text=While%20Mali%20quickly%20fell%20apart,time%20of%20the%20Mali%20Empire
The BBC, (Date Unknown). West African Kingdoms—Ghana. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Story of Africa Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter1.shtml
The BBC, (Date Unknown). West African Kingdoms—Mali. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Story of Africa Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter3.shtml
The BBC, (Date Unknown). West African Kingdoms. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Story of Africa Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter4.shtml
Cartwright, Mark (2019) Songhai Empire . Retrieved February 14, 2021, from Ancient History Encyclopedia site: https://www.ancient.eu/Songhai_Empire/ .
The Gold Road. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from The Gold Road web site: http://thegoldroad.org/map.aspx.
Hooker, Richard (1996). Civilizations in Africa--Songhay. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from World Civilizations Web site: http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAFRCA/SONGHAY.HTM
Metropolitan Museum of Art, (2000). Empires of the Western Sudan. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Web site: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wsem/hd_wsem.htm
The Spruce Crafts. Learn How to Play Mancala to Strengthen Strategic Thinking Skills. Retrieved February 13, 2022. https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/how-to-play-mancala-409424.
(2000) Western Sudan, 500–1000 A.D; Western Sudan, 1000 - 1400 A.D; Western Sudan 1400 - 1600 A.D. Retrieved February 7th, 2012 from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Web site: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=06®ion=afu
MacDonald, K.C. (Date Unknown). The Road to Timbuktu. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Wonders of the African World Web site: http://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi5/5_wondr4.htm
Mansa Musa, one of the wealthiest people who ever lived - Jessica Smith. February 12, 2022. [video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3YJMaL55TM
National Geographic. The Kingdom of Aksum. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from the National Geographic web site: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/kingdom-aksum/
PBS Learning Media. The Aksum Kingdom: Trade and Ancient Africa | Africa's Great Civilizations. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from the PBS web site: https://mass.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/65020a47-68b4-457d-a4e7-0bf306450605/the-aksum-kingdom-trade-and-ancient-africa/#.XfzaIi-ZNuU
Rotondo-McCord, J. (1998). Mali: Introduction. Retrieved February 7, 2012, from The Kingdoms on Medieval Sudan Xavier University of Louisiana Web site: http://webusers.xula.edu/jrotondo/Kingdoms/welcome.htm l
SAHO, (Produced November 8, 2011, last updated July 15, 2020). Songhai, African Empire, 15th-16th Century). Retrieved February 14, 2021, from South African History Online site: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/songhai-african-empire-15-16th-century. (URL shortened for clarity, click the link, don't copy and paste)
The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was founded in the 1st century C.E. and declined in the 7th century C.E. because of the Islamic expansion. It was located on the northern edge of the Red Sea coast, just above the horn of Africa.
Its economy was based on trading between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.
Around A.D. 330-40, Christianity was considered the official state religion.